Durban, South Africa

Hotspot & Ecoregion Status

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot, located along the east coast of southern Africa, below the Great Escarpment, is the second richest floristic region in southern Africa. Three countries fall within the hotspot boundaries – Mozambique (least developed), Swaziland (monarchy), and South Africa. In total, about 18 million people live in the area and the political, cultural landscapes are very diverse. ^[2]

Species statistics ^[3]

	Number of species	Number of endemics	Notable species / Additional info
Plants	~8,100	>1,900	- more than 500 categorized as either Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered - bird-of-paradise flower ( Strelitzia reginae )
Birds	631	14
Mammals	~200	4	- Southern White Rhino ( Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum )
Reptiles	>200	~30	- Vulnerable [4] Natal hinged tortoise ( Kinixys natalensis )
Amphibians	72	11	- all species are frogs - Endangered Pickersgill's reed frog ( Hyperolius pickersgilli ), small ranges near Durban [5]
Freshwater Fishes	DD (data deficient)	DD
Invertebrates	DD	DD

Agriculture and timber production have respectively converted 15 and 31 percent of the hotspot area. Most of the irrigated commercial croplands is sugar cane fields. In Mozambique, government economic growth policies are encouraging the expansion of those fields for both sugar and biofuel. Although agriculture in the hotspot is mainly subsistence agriculture (which is relatively less destructive than commercial monoculture), because of its rural poverty, the concentration of plots near water sources poses threat to riverine systems. On the other hand, urban sprawl, particularly around Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Maputo, are seriously eliminating surrounding habitat with land conversion, pollution runoffs, and poor waste management. Increasing mining activity is another issue. ^[6]

During the five-year period from 2010 to 2015, CEPF invested US$6.65 million in the hotspot, focusing on supporting civil society, especially in under-capacitated protected areas, Key Biodiversity Areas, and priority corridors. ^[7]

KwaZulu-Cape Coastal Forest Mosaic

Durban is located within the Kwa-Sulu-Cape Coastal Forest Mosaic and the Maputaland-Pondoland Bushland and Thicket ecoregions, although its western suburbs constitute the edge of the Drakensberg Montane Grasslands, Woodlands & Forests ecoregion.

The KwaZulu-Cape Coastal Forest Mosaic ecoregion is distributed in a narrow band along the eastern South African coastline, from Cape St Lucia to Cape St Francis. It represents the coastal tropical and subtropical forests, interspersed by thornveld. The topography ranges from deep ridges between rivers, dunes, estuaries, woodlands in the north, to coastal platforms and gorges in the south. There are 18 large rivers flowing through. Northern parts of the ecoregion receive more rain (primarily in the summer), and the south less, predominantly in the winter. The landscape is dominated by the typical coastal-belt forest, transitional coastal forest, and dune forest. These forest types are evergreen with varying proportions of semi-deciduous species. Woody lianas are common in disturbed areas. ^[8]

This ecoregion contains highly endemic flora as well as some narrowly endemic fauna. Species richness is particularly high in trees, shrubs, lianas, and vines. Mammalian species, especially bats, hares, rabbits, and rodents, are well represented. ^[9] One notable amphibian is the Endangered Kloof frog ^[10] ( Natalobatrachus bonebergi ), which is strictly restricted to small patches of habitat near Durban.

Today, KwaZulu-Cape Coastal Forest Mosaic is highly fragmented. More than 43 percent of the original cover has been transformed. Majority of remaining vegetation and protected areas are small and isolated. With the burgeoning populations, demands for natural resources have increased. Clearing for commercial agriculture (sugar cane), forestry, subsistence, building materials, grazing, and traditional medicines (muti) are the main threats. Additional hazards include informal housing, holiday resort expansion, tourism activity, ineffective administrative control, and invasive species. ^[11] Presently, only 3 percent of the ecoregion is protected, which has a 1.1 percent terrestrial connectivity. ^[12]

Maputaland-Pondoland Bushland and Thickets

Located at the foothills of the Drakensberg, the Maputaland-Pondoland Bushland and Thickets ecoregion lines the many rivers that drain into the Indian Ocean. Some prominent rivers include the Tugela Basin, just north of the urban center of Durban. The ecoregion experiences a seasonal, relatively dry climate. Rainfall is generally below 800 mm per annuum and concentrated in warm summer months. It is distinguished from other African thicket types by a predominance of evergreen sclerophyllous plants and its relative paucity of succulents. The vegetation usually consists of a closed canopy formation up to 6 m high and frequently forms an impenetrable tangle of spinescent shrubs, low trees, and vines. Herbaceous or grass layer is not pronounced. The ecoregion shows significant floristic overlap with major vegetation types such as Afromontane forest, coastal forest, broadleaved Zambezian woodland, and Karoo shrubland. While floristic diversity and complexity is high, endemicity is low. The overall faunal diversity is moderate to poor, and levels of endemism is also low due to the landscape’s relative openness. ^[13]
This ecoregion is naturally fragmented and has seen a long history of human occupation. About 50 percent of the original habitat has been transformed, predominantly for agricultural activities such as cash crops cultivation (sugar cane, bananas, tea, maize…) and grazing. In addition, the rapidly expanding population is causing marginal or unsuitable land to be cleared as well. Several large urban centers fall within the ecoregion, namely, Durban, Umtata, King William’s Town, East London, and Grahamstown. Population expansion, industrial development, pollution, and extremely high densities of livestock pose major threats. Other biodiversity hazards include mining and unsustainable medical plant harvests. ^[14] Today, 2 percent of the ecoregion is under protection and 1.09 percent terrestrially connected. ^[15]

Environmental History

Durban was named “Terra do Natal” (i.e. Christmas Country) by Vasco da Gama when he arrived in the area on Christmas Eve 1497. Aside from a few shipwrecks and searching campaigns in the area, the first real European settlement in Durban occurred in 1824, when English settlers took possession of the territory after a few meetings with the Zulu king Shaka. Voortrekkers, Dutch settlers who fled the Cape Town as it transitioned to British rule, moved into Natal with the approval of Dingane, who became the Zulu King upon murdering his half-brother Shaka. Dingane proceeded to kill the Voortrekkers, starting a conflict that the Dutch ultimately won as they claimed what became the Republic of Natalia. ^[16]

Durban was a significant port for the trade of the British empire, and by the mid-1900s the city’s economy was centered around exports like coal and sugar. The port was containerized towards the end of the century, and is now among the largest African ports. Less than 200km North of Durban lies Richards Bay, a major coal port terminal. ^[17]

Early on, natives and Indian immigrants were isolated from white communities in Durban. For instance, European settlers set the tone for the cityscape with the 1861 ban on thatch roofs, a traditional element of Zulu homes. In 1865, voting rights were severely restricted and mostly removed for indigenous people. Apartheid came to a stop throughout the country when Nelson Mandela won the first non-racial election for presidency in 1994. ^[18]

A case study by Alison Todes et al. published in 2000 addresses the Apartheid heritage in Durban’s structure; people of color were isolated in dense settlements that were poorly connected to Durban’s urban center. At the time of writing, higher income neighborhoods were sprawling outwards, while underprivileged settlements maintained their poor environmental quality.With the elaboration of the 1997 Spatial Development Plan, Durban was to be increasingly connected, and suburban areas densified. ^[19]

Current Environmental Status & Major Challenges

Durban City is centered on the coast, sprawling westward with residential areas. The developments continue nearly all the way to Pietermaritzburg, the nearest large town, and are occasionally interrupted by forests. They become less dense further away from Durban, except in the northwest where the city extends into suburban towns like KwaMashu and Phoenix. Further north, farmlands take over completely, leaving no room for forest cover. South of the city, some forestland appears between a few agricultural areas and more residential zones. Over the past decade, growth in the city has mainly occurred through the densification of existing developments, rather than the creation of new ones. ^[21]

Today, Durban’s air is polluted due to its industrial sector, especially in some zones South of the city. Apartheid laws assigned coloured individuals to these areas, and the remnants of such policies are visible today in the ethnic composition of local populations. Thus, health and environmental problems are linked with socio-ethnic tensions, since colored populations tend to be more exposed to hazards. ^[22]

More generally, Durban is struggling to monitor the quality of its air due to management issues, and high cancer rates in the area suggest that pollution might be a major risk for locals. ^[23] Durban was also facing serious waste management issues as late as 2004, due to the city’s rapid expansion and once more to Apartheid policies which caused the isolation of some non-white neighborhoods. ^[24]

The 2011 Durban State of Biodiversity Report identifies multiple threats to biodiversity in the area: land conversion of habitats, alien invasive species, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. ^[25] Satellite imaging reveals that intact natural areas of various various thicknesses remain along Durban’s rivers, namely the Mlazi, the Mbokodweni, the Umgeni, the Sipingo, and the Umhlatuzana. Large areas of relatively well connected forest cover remain throughout the city, although they are occasionally interrupted by mines or expanding residential areas.

Source: EThekwini Environmental Planning & Climate Protection Department, “State of Biodiversity Report,” 2011.

Growth Projections + Type of Growth

Durban’s annual population growth was estimated at 1% between 2012 and 2015. ^[26]

Informal settlements house a significant portion of Durban’s population, and can take one of two possible forms; most informal homes in South Africa occur within large communities, but many take the form of shacks in the backyards of formal dwellings. Shacks in Backyards (SIB) seem a better option for their inhabitants than Shacks not in a Backyard (SNIBY) since limit their isolation and offer access to better quality services. ^[27]

A KwaZulu Natal report on informal settlements indicated that in 2011, 12% of Durban households lived in a SNIBY and 4% in SIB. ^[28] In 2017, however, the eThekwini Integrated Development Plan (IDP) estimated that overall, one quarter of Durban’s population lives in informal settlements. These are often located in flood plains, exposing their inhabitants to flood damage and erosion. Informal settlements are on the rise and  include 15% of international immigrants to Durban, and 35% of immigrants from the Eastern Cape province, just south of KwaZulu Natal. ^[29]

Data concerning informal settlements varies wildly, but suggests that households living in shacks not in backyards did not grow more than 1% yearly between 2002 and 2009. The 2001 Census Survey and 2007 Community survey suggest that Households living in shacks not in a backyard have decreased by 3% annually, whereas those in a backyard have increased by 6%. ^[30]

Governance

South Africa is divided into nine provinces, including KwaZulu-Natal, which is headed by Premier Willies Mchunu. Durban, or eThekwini in Zulu, is one of 11 municipalities in KwaZulu-Natal, and is itself divided into four spatial regions: central, north, south, and outer west. Zandile Gumede is the current mayor of the eThekwini municipality.

Source: EThekwini Municipality, “North Spatial Development Plan,”  2014.

City Policy/Planning

Development Plan

The eThekwini Integrated Development Plan (IDP)  proposes a five year plan and sets guidelines for development through 2021/22, to help Durban City achieve its goal of becoming “Africa’s most liveable city” by 2030. ^[31]

Sprawl is mentioned throughout the plan as a major obstacle to the city’s sustainable development. The plan refers to spatial development documents as a solution to such an  uncontrolled expansion. As for informal developments, the plan proposes tax breaks for very low-cost properties, and the construction of 23,000 low income houses by 2022 with funding from the KwaZulu Natal Department of Human Settlements (DoHS). ^[32]

Durban’s Spatial Development Framework (SDF) addresses the city vision of a “caring and liveable city” through multiple strategies, the first of which is environmental planning. This part of the document focuses on increasing resilience to climate change and reducing pollution. The second strategy described focuses on spatial efficiency, especially compact growth patterns to reduce sprawl and travel time in the city. The SDF also describes the Urban Development Line in Durban, which limits the expansion of the urban core. ^[33]

Zoning

The eThekwini municipality has elaborated extremely detailed zoning and spatial development plans to structure the city’s growth. Among these, the eThekwini City Density Strategy seeks to promote the sustainable development of Durban by channeling population densification into chosen areas, mainly to protect rural areas from land conversion. The plan provides detailed methods such as incentives and disincentives to control the growth of a given area. ^[36]

Biodiversity occupies an essential part of the eThekwini Rural Development Strategy, which acknowledges the critical condition of ecosystems in the municipality. The document identifies key biodiversity areas, and proposes different conservation strategies for the city. Among these, Durban Metropolitan Open Space Systems (D’MOSS) consist of reserves interconnected with recreational spaces. For instance, Paradise Valley Reserve, Burman Bush Reserve, and Kenneth Stainbank Nature Reserve all show the desire to contribute to and benefit from forest cover conservation, given that natural areas in the eThekwini area generate an estimated 4.2 billion ZAR (312 million USD) a year in ecosystem services. ^[37]

Other objectives of the document include promoting a good land use culture, eradicating alien invasive species, controlling the depletion and degradation of wetlands, and controlling developments in sensitive areas. Awareness-building and cooperative monitoring efforts are also mentioned in the Strategy as ways to engage local communities in conservation efforts. ^[38]

Zoning

In order to ensure biodiversity protection, the Durban Government updates its land use maps regularly. For instance, the eThekiwini municipality has planned to purchase and rezone land in and outside of the outer west region in order to convert it into D’MOSS areas. ^[41]

Biodiversity Policy/Planning

NBSAP

South Africa’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) was last updated in 2015 and is centered around the vision to “Conserve, manage and sustainably use biodiversity to ensure equitable benefits to the people of South Africa, now and in the future.” In order to achieve this goal, the plan sets six strategic objectives. These address the need to manage and share the benefits reaped from biodiversity assets, namely by investing in relevant infrastructure, and to mainstream biodiversity concerns into the elaboration and implementation of policies. Other strategies focus on involving the public in conservation efforts, improving workforce efficiency and equitability, and increasing awareness . ^[45]

The NBSAP uses outcomes and concrete activities to guide the efforts for each strategic objective. The outcomes include direct approaches like improving the protected area network, as well as more indirect solutions such as strengthening the biodiversity economy and sharing its benefits with underprivileged rural communities. The Plan places a strong emphasis on involving locals in conservation, specifically by promoting ecosystem-based adaptations, building awareness, and improving information management and accessibility. The NBSAP also suggests the identification and monitoring of special species and geographic areas of concern. Finally, building partnerships with organizations and strengthening the enforcement of policies constitute important components of the plan. ^[46]

National

The South Africa 2030 National Development Plan addresses biodiversity conservation, delegating the responsibility of expanding protected areas and building partnerships with private landowners to the Department of Environmental Affairs, and the responsibility of introducing tax incentives to the National Treasury. ^[47]

The Department of Environmental Affairs is responsible for conservation efforts on a national level. It operates along three main axes: ecosystem management, equitable sharing of benefits, and knowledge management and accessibility. ^[48] Within the department, the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) manages biodiversity information, including land use mapping and biodiversity infrastructure planning,  and provides policy advice to governing bodies. ^[49]

The SANBI 2016-2917 annual report proposes multiple programmes to increase the effectiveness of conservation efforts. The first of these aims to improve the efficiency of corporate services within the organization. Other programmes address building awareness, and managing and gathering biodiversity information to provide advice to policymakers. ^[50]

Regional

At the provincial level, the KwaZulu Natal Department of Economic Development, Tourism and ENvironmental Affairs is responsible for biodiversity planning. ^[51]

Local

The Durban Spatial Development Framework mentions ecosystem conservation and acknowledges the value it brings to the city, focusing on watershed management, river protection, and key identified ecosystems. ^[52]

The eThekwini Integrated Development Plan tackles conservation in greater detail, acknowledging that only 3% of the Durban’s area was protected as of June 2016. The Durban Metropolitan Open Space System (D’MOSS) constitutes the focus of conservation, providing a system of conservation areas interconnected with recreational spaces. However, the plan emphasizes the need to strengthen conservation efforts within D’MOSS, since only 9% of the D’MOSS area was legally protected. Other priorities in the IDP include rehabilitating degraded ecosystems, reducing the rate of land transformation, and  controlling invasive plant species, which have infested 20 million ha in the municipality. The Plan also mentions climate change and pollution as major threats to ecosystems, adding that poor compliance and limited funding limit conservation efforts. Among the plan’s strategic principles, collaborative partnerships provide a way of improving the efficiency of initiatives and integrating local communities and building awareness. ^[53]

Protected Areas Near City

The largest protected area near Durban is the 22km2 Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve, though is is over 70km away from downtown Durban. Other protected areas include the Kenneth Stainbank (2.13km2), Krantzkloof (5km2), Palmiet (0.61km2), North Park (0.51km2), and Bluff (0.46km2) nature reserves, as well as many smaller areas that are scattered across the city. ^[54]

Biodiversity/Landscape Initiatives/Projects

Durban Green Corridors is a non-profit organization that works in the KwaZulu Natal province to promote eco-tourism, create jobs for youth, raise awareness and engage in river health projects. ^[55] This organization leads programs like Durbanites Against Plastic Pollution (DAPP), which seeks to rid the city waterways of plastic waste through a wide range of programs including monitoring, awareness building, or reform suggestions. ^[56]

The uMngeni Ecological Infrastructure Partnership (UEIP) has focused on restoring ecological infrastructure, in this case the watershed, to improve water supply for the area. This program functions through the collaboration of the eThekwini Department of Environmental Planning and Climate Protection with the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Water Affairs, the South African National Biodiversity Institute and a many other organisations. ^[57]

SBNI conducts many other projects in the area, including its “Save the Midmar Dam Project,” which focuses on improving the quality of water delivered by this dam in the uMgungundlovu municipality, west of Durban. The program includes three phases which each focus on multiple ecosystem restoration projects. ^[58] UMgungundlovu is also a target city for SIBNI’s Biodiversity and Land Use Project due to excessive farming in the area and the increase in developments along the N3 freeway. SIBNI collaborates with local governments to incorporate biodiversity concerns in policies, and tries to incentivise private landowners to encourage the protection of ecosystems. ^[59]

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot (MPAH) Learning Network is a community of practice organized by the the Biodiversity Planning and Policy Advice Division of the South African National Biodiversity Institute.

Conclusion

The spatial configuration of Durban is largely the heritage of Apartheid policies. Poorer areas are expanding into natural areas, and informal housing is growing through slum-like settlements and in the backyards of other citizens. The Kwa-Sulu-Cape Coastal Forest Mosaic ecoregion is most threatened by the city’s expansion, and by the air and water pollution caused by industries and poor waste management. Many programs address informal settlement management and biodiversity conservation, namely through the expansion of existing protected areas. For the moment, these are poorly connected and only cover a small area, although intact vegetation in Durban is overall decently connected and quite large. Durban City seems lacking in non-governmental biodiversity organization, and larger groups focus their efforts inland, closer to Pietermaritzburg.

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