Jakarta, Indonesia

Hotspot & Ecoregion Status

The Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot covers the western half of the Indonesian archipelago, some 17,000 islands spanning 5,000 kilometers, and is dominated by the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. It overlaps with a small portion of southern Thailand, nearly all of Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei. The hotspot’s topography is comprised of high mountain ranges, volcanoes, plains, lakes, swamps, and shallow coasts. Sundaland is one of the biologically richest areas on Earth, with astonishing numbers of species and endemism rate especially concentrated on the island of Borneo . ^[2]

Species statistics ^[3]

	Number of species	Percentage/Number of endemics	Notable species / Additional info
Plants	~25,000	60%	- at least 117 endemic genera - the genus Rafflesia , represented by 16 species with very large flowers
Birds	~770	~150
Mammals	>380	>170
Reptiles	>450	~250	- Vulnerable false gharial ( Tomistoma schlegelii ), a massive freshwater crocodile
Amphibians	>240	~200
Freshwater Fishes	~1,000	DD

The Sundaland hotspot is severely threatened by large-scale forest destruction. Commercial logging, agricultural projects ( e.g. oil palm plantations), mining, rubber and pulp production all contribute to the damage. F inancial interest and demand from China, North America, Europe, and Japan are often involved in the schemes. The paper industries also acquire their resources from natural forests rather than plantations. In addition, there is the infamous Indonesian Transmigration Program, which moved people to less populated islands, exacerbating the environmental pressure by road constructions. These activities mentioned above occur even in supposedly protected National Parks and lead to fires, which are devastating to rainforests. Poaching for leather, pets, or the Chinese medicine market is another serious issue, particularly amongst animals such as snakes, turtles, and birds. ^[4]

CEPF’s five-year investment (US$ 10 million from 2001-2006) in the hotspot had an emphasis on the local level, because the management of natural resources have recently decentralized. However, the power shift didn’t necessarily facilitate biodiversity conservation nor influenced Sumatran NGOs’ fragmented operations. Hence, the approach was financing projects at the district level and below, aiming to strengthen local stewardship and build alliances between NGOs and private sectors. ^[5]

The Western Java Rain Forests

The Western Java Rainforests Ecoregion represents the lowland ( below 1,000 m) moist forests of western Java, one of the most volcanically active islands in the world. Situated within the tropical wet climate zone, the ecoregion contains several forest subtypes – the evergreen rainforest, semi-evergreen rainforest, moist deciduous forest (along the northern coast), and dry deciduous forest (also along the northern coast). The four ecosystems are differentiated mostly by the seasonality and amount of rainfall. The moist and dry deciduous have respectively four- to six- month and more than six-month dry seasons. The canopies are generally closed, with few trees exceeding 25 m tall. ^[6]

This ecoregion harbors about 100 types of mammals, including several Critically Endangered species. These contain the Javan rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ) and the Javan gibbon ( Hylobates moloch ). There are more than 350 bird species. In terms of plants, the ecoregion supports more than 3,800 species, encompassing two endemic genera. Two types of the giant insectivorous flowers Rafflesia grow in the region. ^[7]

Java is one of the most densely populated islands in the world, and the rainforests have suffered tremendous anthropogenic damage; only about 5 percent of the original habitats in the ecoregion remain. Major threats contain fires, extensive erosion caused by exposed soils in annual cropping systems, and illegal farming. Illegal felling is widespread even within protected areas, and important timber trees such as Rasamala ( Altingia excelsa ) have been nearly eliminated. Ongoing political instability in the region also leads to the unbridled destruction of remaining rainforests, as environmental laws are routinely ignored. ^[8] At present, only 2 percent of the ecoregion is protected ^[9] ; the largest conserved area is the Gunung Halimun - Salak National Park, which only is home to 35 threatened species. ^[10] The protected areas of the western Java rainforests possess only 1.4% of terrestrial connectivity. ^[11]

The Western Java Montane Rain Forests

This ecoregion represents the montane forests of west Java. The transition between lowland and montane forests is floristic, and some plant families and genera are found only on one side of the divide around 1,000 to 1,200 m. Above this elevation, genera such as Anemone, Aster, Berberis, Lonicera, Primula, Ranunculus, Veronica, and Viola begin to appear. The shift from lower to upper montane zones happens gradually around 1,800 m, and the Aerobryum moss slowly becomes prevalent on all surfaces. Ericaceae shrubs are characteristic o f the upper montane zone, including Rhododendron, Vaccinium, and Gaultheria. Moving further up to above 3,000 m, the sub-alpine forest contains a species-poor layer of trees and the Edelweiss ( Anaphalis javanica ) as the dominant flowering plant. ^[12]

The Western Java Montane Rainforests nurtures 64 mammal species, of which 14 are endemics or near-endemics. These include the most endangered primates in Indonesia – the Javan surili ^[13] ( Presbytis comata ) and the Javan silvery gibbon ^[14] ( Hylobates moloch ). Ano ther significant endemic mammal is the Javan mastiff bat ^[15] ( Otomops formosus ). Th e resident extant of those three species all concentrate towards western Java, overlapping or very near the expanding city of Jakarta. F our bird species of concern are the Endangered Javan hawk-eagle ( Nisaetus bartelsi ), the volcano swiftlet ( Aerodramus vulcanorum ), the Vulnerable Javan cochoa ( Cochoa azurea ), and the Vulnerable Javan scops-owl ( Otus angelinae ). ^[16]

Only about 20 percent of the original habitat in the Western Java Montane Rain Forests remains. Although there are 25 protected areas, they represent isolated mountains (usually volcanic peaks) that are geographically scattered. While the steep terrain limits to some extent human activity, population pressure and farming are still on the rise. ^[17] Currently , 8 percent of the ecoregion is protected, which is 4.29 percent terrestrial ly connected . ^[18]

Environmental History

The Sunda Shelf was created by volcanic activity and erosion from the Asian continental shelf, which eventually consolidated into one land mass. ^[19] It was exposed during the Pleistocene Ice Age around 2 million years ago. ^[20] The island is susceptible to frequent earthquakes and eruptions due to plate tectonics.

Indonesia’s rainy and hot climate and its wet and volcanic soil was well suited for wet-field rice cultivation.  The International Rice Research Institute has dated the beginning of Indonesia’s rice cultivation for 1,500 BCE. ^[21] The highly productive agricultural practices supported the evolution of complex social structures that eventually gave way to small kingdoms composed of villages.  The area that now coincides with North Jakarta has been inhabited since at least the 5th century as part of the Tarumanagara kingdom , which is also recorded to have engineering irrigation and drainage systems. ^[22] From the decline of the Tarumanagara kingdom, the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda ruled until the Sultanate of Banten took over the territory.  Under the Kingdom of Sunda, the port of Sunda Kelapa became a successful trade port because of its geographical location and secured the development of Jakarta. ^[23] The Banten Sultanate continued Jakarta’s trading history, adding trading relationships with Dutch and English merchants centered in nearby Banten. ^[24]

After Jakarta became a Dutch Protectorate, trade and commerce increased the area’s population.  Increased development occurred in the South as people moved away from the port to escape disease epidemics. ^[25] After gaining independence from the Dutch in 1949, founding president Sukarno built nationalist and modernist character in the city through large public works such as highways, monuments, and a new parliament building. ^[26] The rebuilding and development continued with Indonesia’s second President Suharto.  Jakarta’s governor Ali Sadikin also undertook massive slum clearance to make way for new developments.  Following massive unrest and the resignation of Suharto, the Indonesia government has gone through massive decentralization while growth continues. ^[27] 97% of Jakarta land is covered by concrete and other non-permeable surfaces, which prevent the abundant rainfall from replenishing groundwater. ^[28]

Due to groundwater extraction to support the large population that does not have access to piped water, Jakarta is sinking up to 17 centimeters a year. ^[29] Flooding also happens extremely often, moving waste with it; Jakarta has some of the most polluted waterways in the world. ^[30] The government commence in 2014 Giant Sea Wall Jakarta, a Garuda-shaped land reclamation development including an 8km sea wall, new reservoir, and luxury development. Both environment groups and residents have expressed sharp criticism of the project; the former say it will further damage the maritime ecosystem, the latter reject the mass inevitable evictions and destruction of fishing communities. ^[31] The current status of this project is unclear.

Current Environmental Status & Major Challenges

The threats that currently face the ecoregion are largely a result of dense, expansive urban development.  The expansion and density has put a strain on the island’s natural resources.  Extracting groundwater has created great subsidence, becoming the fastest sinking city in the world with over 40% of its population below sea level, where flooding is worryingly widespread . ^[32] Pollution from growing industry and vehicular transport has made Jakarta’s air pollution  three times higher than the maximum “safe” level recommended by the World Health Organization. ^[33]

Deforestation is particularly hard reality for Jakarta.  Palm oil plantations, rapid urban growth along partnered with lack of urban planning, forest fires,  and (mainly) illegal logging are the main causes of deforestation.  Negative effects from deforestation include increased flooding and subsequent environmental issues, habitat loss, species endangerment and extinction. ^[34] Government corruption and neglect is a large part of why deforestation is rampant.  There is little enforcement of regulations and often hides deforestation in official data, for example, by refusing to consider timber harvesting as deforestation. ^[35]

Growth Projections + Type of Growth

Jakarta is expected to stay as one of the fastest growing regions in the world.   By 2020, Jakarta proper’s population is expected to reach 16 million, double the population in 2000. ^[36] In the same time frame, Greater Jakarta’s population is expected to rise from 25 million to 35 million. ^[37] The highest growth rates are in the suburban areas of Jakarta. ^[38]

This massive growth, which was not expected by the government, creates problems in Jakarta’s built environment.  Rapid urbanization has strained infrastructure and increased housing scarcity, causing extreme economic and spatial inequality.  In the greater Jakarta area, over 5 million people live in kampungs or slums, with lack of access to water, electricity, and sanitation. ^[39] Kampungs are close-knit, informal urban neighborhoods in Jakarta; within each, there is a variety of incomes, religions, and ethnicities. ^[40] As developments and land prices grow in Jakarta, kampungs have been losing land area and population, yet density still increases. ^[41]

Governance

Currently, Jakarta is the Special Capital Region in the unitary Republic of Indonesia, administratively equivalent to a province.  Within Jakarta, there are 5 administrative districts (North, South, East, West, and Central Jakarta, respectively) and one administrative regency (Thousand Islands). Jakarta is headed by an elected governor and the legislative Jakarta Council (DPRD).  Each administrative district elects its own mayor, while Thousand Islands has a regent; both types are chosen by the governor.  West Java and Banten, which include some of Jakarta’s metropolitan region, are governor-led provinces divided into mayor-led cities and regencies with their own legislative bodies.  Sub-national governments’ autonomy has increased in the last two decades, though the trend may be reversing. ^[42] The Indonesian governments established Jabodetabek, an administrative region of Jakarta and outer cities, by establishing the Jabodetabek Cooperation Body.  Jabodetabek includes Jakarta, Banten, and West Java. ^[43]

The current Ministry of Environment and Forestry was formed in 2017 by a combination of the Ministry of the Environment and Ministry of Forestry.  It is a cabinet level, government ministry that manages and conserves forests and is responsible for overall environmental management ^[44] Climate change adaptation specifically is under the National Council on Climate Change (DNPI), established in 2008. ^[45] The DNPI’s purpose is to strengthen Indonesia’s efforts against climate change through policies and projects.  The council, formed by members from government and non-governmental organizations, is divided into 8 groups that focus on different aspects of climate change adaptation and mitigation. ^[46]

City Policy/Planning

Development Plan

The National Spatial Plan, established in 2008 for a 20-year period, is Indonesia’s current spatial plan. ^[47] It is designed to be edited and renewed every five years. The national land strategy, determined by the plan’s stated objectives, are to achieve security, economic viability, and land use sustainability.  The plan also classifies cities according to role, including but not limited to center of industry and international gateway.  Within this plan, the Jabodetabekpunjur Spatial Plan covers specifically the metropolitan area around Jakarta. ^[48] Punjur is a term combining the words Puncak Cianjur, which is a mountain pass often visited by those in Jabodetabek  The three strategies in this regional plan are to promote integrated development, promote ecologically sustainable development, and promote economic development.

Since 2008, the Jakarta Spatial Plan 2030 has been in development.  It does not seem like any publicly available plan was ever finalized.  Though the plan touches on many issues such as housing development, environmental sustainability, and flood mitigation.  It has, however, been met with resistance from groups complaining that the plan was too vague. ^[49] Although the plan mentions ecological and land conservation concerns, it provides very little detail in how to actually achieve these goals.  Regarding city development, the plan does not sufficiently include the needs of citizens against the interests of private developers.  The plan emphasizes shareholders above stakeholders and plans to evict low-income people for green areas and flood mitigation.

Zoning

There are zoning laws across the Jakarta region, determined by local governments.  Zoning, however, is ineffective at  controlling development.  The large size of the informal housing market and inability to enforce regulations means that zoning actually restricts formal development rather than guide it.  Often, such as Serang by Southeast Jakarta, the allotted densities and infrastructure in residentially-zoned areas are much less than needed in the region, so informal development is needed to accommodate the people wanting to live here. ^[50] The cost of getting a permit in Jakarta and the practice of bribes to expedite the zoning process again pushes more and more people to the informal sector. ^[51] In addition, the areas on the urban fringe of Jakarta are increasingly covered by zoning maps, contributing to sprawl .

Biodiversity Policy/Planning

NBSAP

Indonesia’s most recent Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan covers 2015-2020, and was published by the M inistry of National Development Planning. This document improves upon the 2003-2020 document, which had problems with implementation, limited scope, and low funding. ^[52] The main changes for the new NBSAP program is to renew biodiversity information and mainstream biodiversity concerns across Indonesian institutions. ^[53] It acknowledges how government organizations haven’t been effective.

National

Biodiversity is allotted little space in national policy.  Indonesia has yet to finalize its own comprehensive biodiversity legislation.  There are two basic laws that relate to biodiversity conservation: Law no. 5/1990 deals with conservation of living resources and Law no. 5/1994 ratified the UN biodiversity Convention ^[54] The Forest Management Act, passed in 1999, gives the Indonesian state full authority to manage the forest, but the act focuses mostly on timber and little on biodiversity. ^[55]

Regional and Local

Forest Management Units (FMUs) are local management entities to address deforestation and forest degradation for sustainable development, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity conservation. ^[56] FMUs can be focused on biodiversity conservation, environmental protection, and forest products. Conservation FMUs safeguard terrestrial flora and fauna while protection and production FMUs can both support biodiversity and serve as buffers for different habitats. ^[57]

Protected Areas

There are little, if any, protected areas in Jakarta and few in the Greater Jakarta region.  Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park is a national park in West Java that is a part of UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves. ^[58] It was formed from already existing conservation areas and is known for biological research.  Mount Halimun Salak National Park is also in West Java and contains Mount Salak and Mount Halimun, connected by a forest corridor.  It is home to several endangered animals and rare birds and is a water catchment area. ^[59] The landscape that contains these two parks is known as Gedepahala. Thousand Islands Marine National Park, north of Jakarta, includes sea turtle conservation and coastal habitats. ^[60]

Biodiversity/Landscape Initiatives/Projects

Conservation International runs The Green Wall Project, which aims to protect the forest outside of Jakarta in the Gedepahala region.  Although the region contains essential ecological functions such as water catchment and biodiversity, the area is threatened by expansion and deforestation. ^[61] The Green Wall P rojects involve replanting trees, community education and outreach, sustainable forest use and infrastructure, and rehabilitating rescued Javan Gibbons. ^[62]

The Indonesian Biodiversity Foundation (KEHATI) is a biodiversity trust fund organization that manages various organizations with substantial biodiversity efforts.  Support comes in forms of grants, facilitation, consultation, and others. ^[63] Member projects near Jakarta include the aforementioned Green Wall Project and Community Based coral reef restoration and ecotourism in Bali and Jakarta. ^[64]

The Indonesian Institute of Sciences established the National Database on biodiversity. ^[65] The main information topics include biodiversity in tropical regions, breeding plants, and ownership of biological resources. ^[66] I can’t find any current information about the status of the collection.

Public Awareness

Public awareness of environmental issues is growing because of the quick rate that Jakarta is sinking.  Flooding is a city-wide problem that threatens the entire city.  Knowledge about the connectivity of the regions surrounding Jakarta is also growing.  However, knowledge specifically about biodiversity is hard to find and awareness is generally low. ^[67] There is also a huge lack of transparency and consultation between the government and residents of Jakarta, which strains the ability for biodiversity issues to be brought to the government’s attention.

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