Keihanshin (Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe) Metropolitan Region, Japan

Hotspot & Ecoregion Status

The Keihanshin Metropolitan region is primarily located within the Taiheiyo Evergreen Forests ecoregion, with some communities extending into the Taiheiyo Montane Deciduous ecoregion, both of which are within the Japan Hotspot. Close to a quarter of vertebrate species that live here are endemic to the Japanese islands. ^[3]

Species statistics ^[4]

	Number of species	Percentage/Number of endemics	Notable species / Additional info
Plants	~5,600	~33%
Birds	~370	13	- Endangered red-crowned crane ( Grus japonensis )
Mammals	~90	~50%	- Japanese macaque ( Macaca fuscata ), Yaku-shima macaque ( M. fuscata yakui )
Reptiles	>65	~30
Amphibians	50	44	- Japanese giant salamander ( Andrias japonicus ), now protected by law as a natural monument
Freshwater Fishes	~215	>50	-  five lampreys and four sturgeons from ancient lineages
Invertebrates	DD	DD	- 240 butterfly species, 25 tiger beetle species

Despite human populations being very densely concentrated– around 70 percent of people live on 3 percent of the land – which leads to relatively low development in the remaining areas, only about 20 percent of Japan’s original vegetation is intact. Following World War II, many high-elevation conifer forests were replaced with timber species such as sugi ( Cryptomeria ) and karamatsu ( Larix kaempferi ). Fortunately, surviving forests are not being cleared for logging due to the high cost of domestic timber. However, canopies are being cleared for leisure landscapes such as ski resorts and golf courses. As constructions for both automobile roads and public transport infrastructures are still on the rise, more and more once remote places are becoming accessible and disturbed by tourism. Other sources of threat include agricultural expansion and river channelization, which damage wetlands and coastal regions. Finally, the introduction of alien species for the purpose of snake control in the past have also threatened local flora and fauna. ^[5]

Taiheiyo Evergreen Forests

This ecoregion encompasses temperate broadleaf forests, covering 138,300 square kilometers (53,400 sq mi) on the Pacific (Taiheiyo) side of the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. The Japan Current creates a subtropical humid climate with a long growing season. The primary vegetation shifts from laurel forests near the coast to oak forests inland, containing a mix of both temperate and tropical asian species. ^[6] The Japanese river otter ( Lutra lutra whiteleyi ) once numbered in the millions in this region, and yet was over-hunted for its fur and loss of habitat due to development and pollution during the past century. After three decades of no sighting (the last one in 1979), it was declared extinct by the country's Ministry of the Environment in 2012. ^[7]

The ecoregion is also home to the largest cities in Japan, namely Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, and Nagoya. Most of forests in these areas have been cleared for agriculture or urban settlement. Residual patches concentrate around temples and shrines, on steep slopes, and in gorges. Secondary growth woodlands, called Satoyama (里山), are found on hillsides near farmlands. ^[8] At present, the ecoregion is 30% protected with 13.11% terrestrial connectivity. Some of the largest protected areas are national parks such as Setonaikai and Chichibu Tama Kai. ^[9]

Taiheiyo Montane Deciduous Forests

This ecoregion stretches across hills and mountains on the Pacific Ocean side of Japan’s Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands. The forest canopy consists of beech and fir, and beneath grow dwarf broad-leaf bamboos (sasa). The climate here is denoted by abundant rainfall in early summer and dry winters, regulated by the  Japan Current. Vegetation displays shore to shore variations, influenced by either the Sea of Japan or the Pacific Ocean. The latter cultivates some of the highest plant diversity in Japan. ^[10]

Some notable animals in the ecoregion include the Japanese sika deer ( Cervus nippon ) and the Asiatic black bear ( Ursus thibetanus ), which has been decreasing in numbers and is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN RED LIST. ^[11] The Japan giant salamander ( Andrias japonicus ) is one of the world’s largest amphibians. Residing in cold, fast-moving streams in the mountains of southwestern Honshu, the salamander can weigh up to 40 kilograms (88 lbs) and reach 1.5 meters (5 ft) in length, living for as long as 50 years. This rare endemic species has been designated as one of Japan’s Special Natural Monuments and is now protected by law. ^[12]

The primary deciduous forests in the ecoregion have almost entirely vanished in Japan, having been cleared for conifer timber plantations and urban developments. While the remaining units are conserved in national parks, the areas are fragmented. ^[13] At present, the ecoregion is 29% preserved with 15.76% terrestrial connectivity. ^[14]

Notes On Regional Names

The name Kinki is more than 1300 old and refers to the ancient provinces around the then-capital of Kyoto. ^[15]

Kansai is a traditional name for the region of ancient cities west (sai) of the mountain barrier/toll gate (kan) near Mount Fuji. The earliest Japanese state was established here. This region traditionally included Osaka and Kobe.

The Keihanshin Industrial Zone , also called the Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe Region, was the dominant industrial region in Japan until WWII. Its earliest industries were focused on textiles and porcelain, followed by cement, steel, glass, and rubber. These were followed in the 1920s by metals production, steam locomotives, rolling stock, electrical equipment, bicycles, and chemicals. The advent of WWII pushed many industries to the periphery as munitions industries developed in the industrial core. After the war its dominance declined as the Keihin Industrial Zone in the Tokyo Yokohama region gained prominence. ^[16]

Environmental History

The region’s settlement history dates back to the beginnings of Japanese civilization, at least as early as 7000 BC. Nara, the eastern most point of the Silk Road, Japan’s first capital. The plain of Osaka became a political centre by about 300 AD. It was a strategic location because of its easily accessible location on the Yodo River delta at the eastern end of Osaka Bay, which is part of the Seto Inland Sea. This delta region began to be fundamentally transformed from very early on. Parts of the Yodo River delta were reclaimed to allow for the building of new settlements as early as the Middle Ages. The metropolitan region extends into the deltas of the Yodo, Yamato, and other rivers as well as their floodplains. It is bounded by Osaka Bay in the southeast, the Ikoma Mountains in the east, the Izumi Mountains in the south, and the Rokkō Mountains in the northwest. ^[17]

The Ishiyama Hongan Temple, started in 1496 and completed in 1532, became the nucleus of a town that would be destroyed by Nobuanaga, whose successor built a castle on the site that became the center of the town that became modern day Osaka. During the Early Modern Period (mid-16th to mid-18th century), Osaka was the second largest city to Edo and was a major economic center. It remained an important port and industry center until WWII when it was largely destroyed by aerial bombing. Post-war economic growth focused largely on the Tokyo-Yokohama metro area.

Kobe was started as a small fishing village. At the time, nearby Kyogo was the dominant port for trade with China and Korea. By the late 19th century, however, Kobe’s deeper harbour made made it more competitive than Hyogo’s and eventually absorbed it. The city continued to grow through conurbation/absorption through the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Although it sustained extensive damage in WWII, it rebuilt rapidly and began to grow again quickly after the war. The ports of Osaka and Kobe became integrated administratively in the 1970s. In 1995, a massive earthquake destroyed large parts of Kobe and its suburbs, killing more than 5,500 people.

During the 20th century, Japan transformed from a poor, primarily rural country into a highly urbanized, industrial superpower. According to economist Andre Sorensen, this transformation was heavily shaped by the the strong cultural context of “the highly developed urban system, urban traditions and material culture of the pre-modern period, which remained influential until well after the Pacific War,” and the “dominance of central government in urban affairs, and its consistent prioritisation of economic growth over the public welfare or urban quality of life.” ^[18]

Today the central part of Osaka is primarily commercial due to long term migration trends out of the city and into the suburbs that began in the 1920s. This migration was facilitated in large part by private railway companies that made land available for development along their rights-of-way. Osaka and Kobe experienced extensive damage during World War II.

Current Environmental Status & Major Challenges

Today the primary environmental challenges facing the metro region are :

• Land clearance for agriculture as well as extensive urbanization in the form of suburban sprawl has decimated the majority of original lowlands forests associated with the ecosystems of the Taiheiyo Evergreen Forests
• Depopulation, especially of surrounding rural areas, leads to the abandonment of farmland and lack of funding and resources for management of forests, particularly plantations. This is seen as a grave threat to ecosystemic as well as economic health by the Japanese government, both in this region and elsewhere in Japan.
• Today, the overuse of groundwater is leading to subsidence
• Water Pollution
• The suburban sprawl of the City of Osaka
• The area has two main environmental vulnerabilities: it is seismically active and is vulnerable to typhoons.
• Severe air pollution in the 1970s lead to the birth of the local environmental movement. Although the situation has

Growth Projections + Type of Growth

The urban growth patterns of the Keihanshin region have mirrored those of Japan: with large rural-urban migration and extensive suburbanization. The highest population densities are in the peripheral wards, while the central wards have been losing population. ^[19] Development in the metro area has largely been formal though there are some informal areas, such as Kamagasaki, on the peripheries of the city. The growth rate of the metro area has been slowing since the early 90s and is predicted to decline by several hundred thousand people between 2016 and 2030. ^[20]

Governance

Japan is a unitary state with a constitutional monarchy that has absolute say over what powers it cedes to sub-national governments. Below the national level, Japan is divided into 2 types of secondary administrative units: prefectures and designated cities, which have populations greater than 500,000 people and have been designated as such by the cabinet of Japan (there are 67 prefectures and 20 designated cities). Designated cities are further subdivided into wards. Prefectures are divided into municipalities that are categorized as cities, towns or villages (6 large prefectures are divided into a further level of subprefecture, which are then further divided into municipalities). Designated cities are empowered to perform many of the functions normally assigned to prefectural governments.

The Keihanshin metropolitan region is not an officially designated administrative unit; it rather refers to the functional interrelationship between the urban centers of Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe. This metropolitan region extends into three prefectures: Osaka, Kyoto, and Hyogo, and is the second most populated region in Japan with more than 19 million inhabitants. The three cities are all capitals of their respective prefectures, and all three are designated cities. As such they are all divided into wards. Osaka has 24 wards, Kyoto has 11, and Kobe has 9.

City Policy/Planning

The National Land Use Planning Law establishes three levels of planning: National Planning, Prefectural Planning, and Municipal Planning.

An area must be designated as a City Planning Area in order to fall under the purview of city planning structures. These areas are divided into Urbanization Promoting and Urbanization-restricted areas according to the City Planning Law of 1919 (a national level law). The law also delineates use districts that define and designate different types of residential, commercial and industrial districts. Japanese Building code is regulated by the Building Standard Act, which established minimum standards of the site, facilities, infrastructure, and usage of a building. ^[21]

The Local Autonomy Law requires each municipality to develop a fundamental plan (framework) and a spatial Municipal Master Plan, which is aligned with the fundamental and the larger scale City Planning Area Master Plan with whose territory Municipality overlaps. These are both considered guidelines rather than statutory tools. District planning which results in finer grained statutory plans was introduced in 1980 and effectively serves as a statutory tool for zoning as well as urban design. ^[22]

^[23] At the National level, 5 Comprehensive National Development Plans (1962, 1969, 1977, 1987, 1998) set out broad objectives for shaping development in response to internal and global circumstances. ^[24] These were augmented by separately drafted Basic Regional Plans. Under this system, Osaka was part of the Osaka part of the Kinki Region (Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto), which included 8 prefectures.

Facing national population decline and increasing environmental challenges, the national Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT) decided to change the structure of the national planning process to focus on the qualitative development rather than the quantitative development. This restructuring also consolidated the national and regional planning system, as the whole planning process became more inclusive of regional and local governments. Regional plans are/will (?) be drawn up in coordination with the new national plan. This process is now overseen by the National and Regional Planning Bureau within the MLIT. ^[25]

The National Spatial Strategy, the first plan adopted of the restructured system was passed in August 2015. ^[26] The plan set out national level objectives for cities and metropolitan regions aimed at promoting “regional revitalisation; supporting multi-layered, resilient, compact and networked structures; and correcting excessive concentration in Tokyo and positioning it as a metropolitan region.” It provided long-term principles drawn from the Grand Design Plan and created the necessary policies and measures that would empower ministries to implement them. ^[27] The plan also lays out 8 regional blocks that are to get their own regional plans that comply with the frameworks set out in the National Spatial Strategy; these blocks include the Kinki region. This region is seen as the “Base of Interaction with Asia Through History and Innovation.” ^[28] We were not, however, able to find an updated regional plan for the Kinki region.

The Grand Design of National Spatial Development towards 2050 is a plan put forward in 2014 by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism .

Biodiversity Policy/Planning

NBSAP

The tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP 10) was held in Nagoya City, Aichi Prefecture, in October 2010 with the theme of “Life in Harmony, into the Future”. The theme incorporated the traditional Japanese concept which states that instead of the schism between Culture and Nature, humans live as part of nature. Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 is one of the outcomes of COP10, stipulating specific “Aichi Targets” to be achieved by 2015 or 2020. The targets consider biodiversity as a social issue that needs to be considered from a socio-economic standpoint. The NBSAP of Japan 2010-2020 was formulated following two major events – COP10 and the Great East Japan Earthquake – and was submitted in 2013. It aims for a wide array of actors, including the national government and local municipalities, businesses, private organizations, and citizens. The strategies strive to minimize human pressure and improve degraded ecosystems for biodiversity conservation. ^[29]

Japan contains the sixth largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world, and Japanese consumption activities, such as timber and marine products, have the second largest impact (only after the United States) on many threatened species. The biodiversity crisis in Japan of human-related causes are summarized into three categories – (1) human activities (e.g. development). At present, even though rapid developments after WWII have slowed down, the size of reclamation areas in coastal regions is still increasing, and agricultural land and forests are still being converted to urban use at an annual rate of 170 square-kilometers. (2) insufficient management in artificial forests e.g. Satoyama landscapes due to stagnant/declining populations. (3) artificially introduced factors. Many established populations of invasive species are distributed from harbors and port cities like Hyogo, Yamaguchi, Osaka, Tokyo, and Aichi through imported goods. To ensure rich biodiversity in cities, the plan takes the characteristics of the original local natural environment into account and promotes green spaces and urban parks, aiming to secure large-scale habitats. ^[30]

National

The Ministry of the Environment, Natural Environment Bureau Biodiversity Center monitors and maps Japan’s vegetation, distribution of flora and fauna, rivers, and the ecological status of its lakes, tidelands, and coral reefs.  It makes some of this data available to the public for download. ^[31] It started producing the National Survey on the Natural Environment in 1973; the most recent National Basic Survey of the Natural Environment was conducted in 2013.

A number of other national plans and  laws support biodiversity protection and planning:

• The National Environmental Plan
• Urban Green Space Conservation Act
• Law for the Development of Conservation Areas in the Kinki Region
• Urban Park Act
• Revised both the National Park Act and the Nature Conservation Law in 2009
• Comprehensive Check of National and Quasi-National Parks in October 2010
• Technological Considerations in Securing Biodiversity under Master Plan for Greenery
• Law for the Conservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

Need to expand on: Japan Biodiversity Fund; Increases in Forest Reserves and Green Corridors

Protected Areas

Setonaikai is the only national park close to the Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe metropolitan region.

The other parks within the metropolitan area or in its proximity, listed by prefecture and IUCN category, are:

Hyogo Prefecture

• Category IV

• Ashiyashi urayama Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Itami Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Takatorisan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Nishinomiyashi omoteyama Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Tekkaisan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Rokkosan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area

• Category V

• Ina gawa keikoku Prefectural Natural Park

Kyoto Prefecture

• Category IV

• Higashiyama Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Kinugasa hanazono Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Utanokitasaga Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Kannabiyama Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Mimuroto Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Yamashina Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Orii Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Otokoyama Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Tennozan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area

• Category V

• Biwako Quasi National Park

Nara Prefecture

• Category IV

• Kongokatsuragi Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Ikoma-shigisan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area

Osaka Prefecture

• Category IV

• Myokenzan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Katano Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Ikomasan Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Hirakata Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Minokatsuoji Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area
• Yodogawa Prefectural Wildlife Protection Area

• Category V

• Meiji Memorial Forest Minoo Quasi National Park
• Kongo-Ikoma-Kisen Quasi National Park

Biodiversity/Landscape Initiatives/Projects

Satoyama Initiative seeks to “achieve both the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in human-influenced natural environments that people have developed and maintained through agriculture, forestry and other human activities”.  It is a joint initiative of the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (MOEJ) and the United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS) which lead a partnership of organizations from across the world including government agencies, NGOs, indigenous and local community organizations, research institutes, businesses and international organizations . ^[32]

Other Projects that need further research include:

• Bay Renaissance Project in Osaka Bay
• Japan Business Initiative for Biodiversity (JBIB)
• Inochi-no-Mori Restoration in Kyoto (maybe in Umekoji Park?)
• Kinki Regional Biodiversity Strategies ^[33]

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