Makassar (Ujung Padang), Indonesia

Hotspot & Ecoregion Status

The Wallacea biodiversity hotspot includes two countries – Indonesia and Timor-Leste – and their more than 1,680 islands. The area, along with neighboring New Guinea, has more marine species than anywhere else on Earth. Close to 30 million people live in Wallacea, primarily along the coasts, and are a mixture of numerous cultures and ethnicities. This factor is significant as governments and civil societies directly impact the balance between economic growth and local biodiversity protection. ^[2]

Species statistics ^[3]

	Number of species	Percentage of endemics	Notable species / Additional in
Plants	~10,000	~15%
Birds	~650	~40%	- maleo ( Macrocephalon maleo )
Mammals	>220	~57%	- endemism level is as high as 88% if discounting bats - babirusa ( Babyrousa babyrussa )
Reptiles	>220	~45%	- Komodo dragon ( Varanus komodoensis ), the largest lizard on earth
Amphibians	~50	65%	- predominantly frogs
Freshwater Fishes	>300	~75%	- almost all tolerant of both freshwater and saltwater
Invertebrates	DD	DD

The wetter lowland and hill forests in the hotspot have the highest number of tree species. Endemism is high at the level of individual islands for birds. For example, the curious ground-digging Endangered maleo ( Macrocephalon maleo ) only resides on Sulawesi. The island (where Makassar is located) also supports at least seven species of endemic macaques and five species of endemic tarsiers. The invertebrate fauna in the hotspot is poorly known, except for the enormous bird-wing butterflies and over 100 types of mostly endemic tiger beetles. ^[4]

The Wallacea hotspot is very vulnerable to climate change hazards, especially sea-level rise and extreme weather events such as intense rainfall. Other major threats to biodiversity include small-scale and illegal logging, fuelwood collection (particularly in largely rural Timor-Leste), unsustainable fishing (with bombs and poisons that destroy coral reefs), hunting, industrial agriculture (oil palm and sugar cane), timber plantations, and livestock. The increasing population is exacerbating all activities mentioned above. ^[5]

There has been a historical lack of investment in conservation and economic development in general throughout Wallacea. CEPF’s US$6.85 million investment from 2014 to 2019 focuses on partnerships and networks with local communities, mentoring national and international nonprofits, universities, and private companies. ^[6]

Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests

Makassar is located in the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests ecoregion, on the southern peninsula of the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, one of the top two mega-diversity countries in the world. The Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests ecoregion represents the lowland (less than 1,000 m) forests on Sulawesi and surrounding islands of Banggai, Sula, Talaud, and Sangihe. It is surrounded by exotic ocean basins and straits. Active volcanoes are present on the northern arm of Sulawesi. Because of its geologic history and long geographic isolation, the fauna (originated from Asia or Australia) have evolved distinctively. Although not species-rich relative to neighboring Borneo or Java, Sulawesi is high in endemism. Amongst the 104 mammal species in the ecoregion, 29 are endemic or near-endemic, the highest number in Asia. ^[7] Some noteworthy animal species include the Vulnerable ^[8] spectral tarsier ( Tarsius tarsier ) and the Vulnerable ^[9] Knobbed Hornbill ( Rhyticeros cassidix ), both endemic to Sulawesi and roam near Makassar.

More than half of the original forest cover has been cleared for permanent and shifting cultivation, and the remaining habitats are reduced to patches. Uncontrolled and illegal logging persists as the biggest threat to biodiversity, due to the lack of authority and implementation of environmental laws. ^[10] Mining, aquaculture and forest fires are other major threats to forest cover, as well as the direct commercialization of biodiversity through irresponsible trade. ^[11] Presently, 7 percent of the ecoregion is under protection, with a 2.2 percent terrestrial connectivity.

Environmental History

Starting in 1600, Islam became the official religion of Sulawesi, enforced by the powerful sultanate of Gowa. By the time the Dutch conquered Makassar, it was the capital of Gowa and an important trading port. Makassar occupied an important place in the slave-trade, where locals were captured and made into slaves, namely the prisoners of tribal wars. Starting in 1633, the Dutch intervened in a series of conflicts with the Sultan, until Makassar was annexed by the Dutch in 1669. The Sultanate was restored in 1936 and finally integrated into Indonesia in 1949. ^[12]

Thus. The city has long been an essential trading port in the area, whether to Sultans or European governors. Today, Makassar’s economic growth exceeds its population growth, making it an attractive city, which continues to export goods such as cocoa, forest products including timber, coffee, palm oil, cashews, and fish. ^[13]

Current Environmental Status & Major Challenges

The city of Makassar is facing challenges with water pollution, namely due to poor waste management; only 70% of waste is processed in the city. ^[14] Additionally, air pollution is on the rise with the increase of vehicular traffic. ^[15] The proliferation and development of informal settlements throughout the city pose a serious threat to nearby ecosystems, as does the uncontrollable conversion of land within the city. Indeed, on average 4.2% of the city’s surface area was converted every year between 2000 and 2005. ^[16]

A land use study published in 2015 reveals that 24% of Makassar’s area was converted from non-rice farmlands to built areas between 1990 and 2000, and another 19% between 2000 and 2010. During both decades, the land types that were most lost during conversions were ricefields and other farmlands, since an additional 15% of Makassar’s area was converted from riziculture to built areas between 2000 and 2010. ^[17]

Growth Projections + Type of Growth

Makassar will house a predicted 1.6 million people in 2025, or a yearly growth average of 1.5% from its 2010 population of 1.3 million. As many as 58,000 households were occupied informal settlements in 2012, representing a growth of 320% from 2003. ^[18] In order to remedy the alarming situation of slums in Makassar, the Office of Public Works and Housing formulated a Slum Improvement Program in 2016. ^[19]

A study by Latief, Leleito and Ohgai suggests that reducing taxes in desired urban zones would be an effective way to stimulate urbanization and could effectively be coupled with a tax increase in non-desired zones. ^[20] However, such a suggestion would solve the expansion of informal settlements, which constitute a major cause of urban expansion in the city.

Governance

South Sulawesi (or Sulawesi Selatan) is one of Indonesia’s 34 administrative provinces, which are led by governors. The province is further divided into 21 regencies and 3 cities which are controlled by local governments and headed by regents or mayors. Mohammad Ramdhan Pomanto is the mayor of Makassar City. ^[21]

City Policy/Planning

Development Plan

Although the government underlines the importance of biodiversity conservation in multiple regional development plans, it rarely provides specific guidelines for conservation on a regional level. Indeed, the Sulawesi Island Development Framework and Strategy, developed in coordination with the Japan International Cooperation Agency,

provides a report on protected areas but makes little more suggestions on the matter than to: “sustain harmony among the natural, social and economic environments so that the Sulawesi people and their descendants will live in a harmonious manner.” ^[22] Similarly, the 2013-2018 Vision and Mission of South Sulawesi Province only broadly mentions environmental sustainability as the third component of its second principle. ^[23]

City development plans show similar vagueness in some documents, often mentioning environmental efforts as an afterthought to other priorities:  “development of land and water resource exploitation while maintaining and improving the quality of the environment.” ^[24]

However, government documents are not completely devoid of biodiversity planning; an amendment to the Makassar 2005-2025 Development Plan sets a goal for an environmentally friendly city, including “the spatial area to support sustainability.” Mission four of seven of the long-term development policy focuses on the establishment of a sustainable living space, measured namely through the environmental index, and mission six addresses an increase in environmental awareness. ^[25]

The 2012 Makassar City Program Towards a Smart City includes three programs. The infrastructure project mentions the Centerpoint of Indonesia Project, which consists in the creation of five artificial islands off the coast of Makassar with the Royal Boskalis dutch engineering firm. The green program focuses on city parks as well as energy, pollution, and waste management. Finally , the social program addresses informal settlement management, with the goal of “structuring without displacing.” ^[26]

The 2016 Makassar City Profile report mentions seven values geared around social objectives, non of which include any environmental concerns. The second point of the Basic Development Policy is focused on economic and infrastructure development, to move towards independence and self-sustenance, but is also mentions increased environmental restoration efforts. The fifth point mentions the need to create pro-environmental policies to accompany the entry of investors in the region. However, the report does not address any biodiversity-related suggestions in strategies. ^[27]

Zoning

Similarly, city zoning does not include any protected areas, and land use maps account for informal settlements, suggesting that the city makes reports on land use rather than policies for it.

Thus, city and regional planning documents make few mentions of biodiversity protection and do so in mostly vague terms. Although many documents address urban expansion and the development of informal settlements as issues, they do not seem to make suggestions or set concrete targets to improve the situation. In fact, rather than curb expansion, the government settles on solutions like the development of artificial islands, despite acknowledging the threat that climate change and sea-level rise already pose to mainland territories.

Biodiversity Policy/Planning

NBSAP

The 2016 Indonesia Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan includes a full section on economic utilization ^[28] , existing and potential medication, as well as the value of a person experiencing nature. ^[29]

The Plan accounts for biodiversity conservation through in-situ preservation, namely through the 528 existing Indonesian conservation areas (39,000km2 of nature reserves and 50,000km2 of wildlife reserves), and through ex-situ management, containing the development of captive breeding and rescue of species. The Plan also acknowledges the lack of enforcement of existing policies for protected areas. Additionally, although Sulawesi contains 26 “biodiversity parks,” none of them are in the southern peninsula, whose forest cover is most depleted. To ensure genetic diversity in sensitive populations, the plan suggests to improve the connectivity of habitats. ^[30]

In terms of information, many Indonesian institutions, including universities, the Indonesian Institute of Science, and the Ministry of Agriculture, have already managed the inventory and identification of species. The Plan addresses the need to develop the National Biodiversity Information Network (NBIN) and the Indonesia Biodiversity Information Facility (InaBIF). The latter currently combines five other databases to increase awareness and information accessibility. The main challenges have to do with updating and maintaining a transparent and structured data collection process. ^[31]

One of the Plan’s missions is to integrate biodiversity into the Indonesian national identity, through research and sustainable management of biodiversity, and the enhancement of its benefits for the country.

Administratively, the plan aims to improve the administration of biodiversity-related organizations, and to develop a cooperation system promoting participatory and inclusive biodiversity management. ^[32]

Some other targets include informal and formal education, economic growth from controlled utilization of biodiversity resources, incentives and punishments for businesses, sustainable agriculture, pollution reduction, invasive species control, and pressure-reduction on climate-change-sensitive ecosystems. ^[33]

National

Aside from a 2014 report on Indonesia’s Current Biodiversity, which provides a detailed account of the state of the country’s habitats and species, (in Indonesian) biodiversity occupies little space in other national documents. ^[34] Indeed , the Indonesia Development Plan 2005-2025 does little more than mention the drastic increase in deforestation that occured in the 1990s . ^[35]

Protected Areas near the City

The government of Indonesia defines six different levels of protected areas: nature reserve (I), wildlife reserve (II), national park (III), nature recreational park (IV), hunting game reserve (V), and grand forest park (VI). ^[36]

The largest protected area near Makassar is the Bulusaraung Bantimurung Nature Reserve (437km2). Right next to it is the Bantimurung Nature Recreational Park (0.18km2). Other protected areas include the Komora Wildlife Reserve (30km2), the Goa Patunang (15km2) and Malino (35km2) recreational parks, and the Komora Hunting Park (98km2). ^[37]

Biodiversity/Landscape Initiatives/Projects

Although the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN-REDD) operates in In donesia to combat activities like logging, it does not have any initiatives in South Sulawesi. ^[38] Similarly, organizations such as Conservation International, Wetlands International and the Nature Conservancy have multiple ongoing projects in Indonesia, but none in the Makassar area.

In fact, even the Kehahati Foundation, or Indonesian Biodiversity Conservation Trust Fund, does not lead any operations in South Sulawesi. However, some organizations like Fauna and Flora International do have initiatives in the province, including surveying the karst in the south tip of the peninsula, to potentially propose the expansion of Bantimurung-Bulusaraung National Park. ^[39]

The Institutional Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment identified  three important ecosystems near Makassar: the Jeneberang watershed, the Tallo River and wetlands, and the Islands off the coast. The document acknowledges a lack of cooperation between government departments as well and of clear regulations on climate change prevention. In addition to addressing these two concerns, the document recommends increasing policy enforcement, integrating climate change considerations into building permit regulations, revising land use policies, mapping climate-change-sensitive areas, and supporting mangrove restoration where appropriate. ^[40]

Some biodiversity initiatives include Academic organizations, like the Society for Indonesian Biodiversity, whose Biodiversitas which includes specific studies relevant to South Sulawesi, like the inventory of orchids, or reports on species like Arabica Coffee and the Gaga Chicken. ^[41] The National Seminar and International Conference organized by the Society also publishes relevant papers like a study on bacteria culture methods to reduce oil spills in Makassar. ^[42]

Public Awareness

Even though biodiversity constitutes a key part of Indonesia’s identity, awareness in South Sulawesi does not seem very high; environmental discussions are mostly focused on the causes of climate change. Watersheds seem like the biggest point of concern that is related to ecosystem conservation, since the quality of  water in Makassar is only worsening with the growth of the city’s population.

Conclusion

Although Indonesia as a whole shows awareness and concern for biodiversity issues, South Sulawesi is rarely the center of the discussion on conservation in the country. Only very few parcels of intact forest cover remain, such that forest restoration might be as important a solution to consider as protected area expansion. As for sprawl, the government of Makassar, although it is well aware of its urban development, is not enforcing any strict zoning policies, which is causing intense urbanization within city limits, pushing farms inland, towards the little areas of remaining cover.

Even though some may point to the small number of endangered species in the south compared to the rest of the island of Sulawesi, considering the state of forests in both areas is enough to understand that many species in the South might be more than threatened.

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