Nairobi, Kenya

  • Global Location plan: 1.29oS, 36.82oE [1]        
  • Ecoregion: Eastern Afromontane
  • Population 2015: 3,238,000
  • Projected population 2030: 5,851,000
  • Mascot Species: African Elephant  (Loxodonta africana)

Endangered species

Amphibians
  • Hemisus marmoratus
  • Sclerophrys turkanae
  • Ptychadena mossambica
  • Tomopterna marmorata
  • Sclerophrys xeros
  • Arthroleptis stenodactylus
  • Cacosternum kinangopensis
  • Phrynobatrachus graueri
  • Sclerophrys gutturalis
  • Mertensophryne lonnbergi
  • Poyntonophrynus lughensis
  • Mertensophryne mocquardi
  • Poyntonophrynus parkeri
  • Sclerophrys regularis
  • Afrixalus delicatus
  • Hyperolius kivuensis
  • Phrynobatrachus acridoides
  • Phrynobatrachus bullans
  • Hildebrandtia macrotympanum
  • Hildebrandtia ornata
  • Hoplobatrachus occipitalis
  • Boulengerula denhardti
  • Cacosternum plimptoni
  • Phrynobatrachus scheffleri
  • Hyperolius glandicolor
  • Hyperolius viridiflavus
  • Chiromantis petersii
  • Phrynomantis bifasciatus
  • Hyperolius montanus
  • Tomopterna wambensis
  • Hyperolius tuberilinguis
  • Sclerophrys pusilla
  • Phrynobatrachus mababiensis
  • Tomopterna tandyi
  • Schismaderma carens
  • Xenopus borealis
  • Hyperolius pusillus
  • Hyperolius cinnamomeoventris
  • Sclerophrys garmani
  • Sclerophrys kerinyagae
  • Sclerophrys kisoloensis
  • Hemisus guineensis
  • Afrixalus quadrivittatus
  • Afrixalus septentrionalis
  • Hyperolius cystocandicans
  • Kassina senegalensis
  • Kassina somalica
  • Leptopelis bocagii
  • Phrynobatrachus irangi
  • Phrynobatrachus keniensis
  • Phrynobatrachus kinangopensis
  • Phrynobatrachus natalensis
  • Amietia wittei
  • Amietia wittei
  • Ptychadena anchietae
  • Ptychadena chrysogaster
  • Ptychadena mahnerti
  • Ptychadena oxyrhynchus
  • Ptychadena porosissima
  • Ptychadena schillukorum
  • Ptychadena taenioscelis
  • Amietia nutti
  • Pyxicephalus adspersus
  • Xenopus victorianus
  • Mertensophryne nairobiensis
  • Leptopelis concolor
  • Ptychadena nilotica
  • Tomopterna cryptotis
  • Pyxicephalus edulis
  • Tomopterna gallmanni
Mammals
  • Connochaetes taurinus
  • Heliophobius argenteocinereus
  • Laephotis wintoni
  • Lemniscomys macculus
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Saccostomus mearnsi
  • Madoqua kirkii
  • Tragelaphus eurycerus
  • Epomophorus minor
  • Ichneumia albicauda
  • Otocyon megalotis
  • Otomys angoniensis
  • Praomys jacksoni
  • Miniopterus fraterculus
  • Miniopterus inflatus
  • Mops condylurus
  • Oenomys hypoxanthus
  • Oryx beisa ssp. callotis
  • Oryx beisa
  • Oryx beisa
  • Ourebia ourebi
  • Otomys typus
  • Panthera leo
  • Panthera leo
  • Panthera leo
  • Panthera leo
  • Paraxerus ochraceus
  • Canis lupaster
  • Caracal aurata
  • Lemniscomys striatus
  • Raphicerus campestris
  • Redunca fulvorufula
  • Giraffa camelopardalis
  • Rhinolophus clivosus
  • Rhinolophus fumigatus
  • Rhinolophus simulator
  • Mungos mungo
  • Mops nanulus
  • Herpestes ichneumon
  • Glauconycteris argentata
  • Papio anubis
  • Pronolagus rupestris
  • Crocidura luna
  • Crocidura montis
  • Crocidura parvipes
  • Chaerephon bivittatus
  • Sylvisorex granti
  • Nycticeinops schlieffeni
  • Atilax paludinosus
  • Helogale hirtula
  • Mellivora capensis
  • Hylochoerus meinertzhageni
  • Potamochoerus larvatus
  • Nycteris macrotis
  • Elephantulus rufescens
  • Platymops setiger
  • Tragelaphus oryx
  • Crocidura fischeri
  • Uranomys ruddi
  • Crocidura fuscomurina
  • Glauconycteris variegata
  • Thryonomys gregorianus
  • Felis silvestris
  • Mastomys natalensis
  • Tachyoryctes splendens
  • Crocidura littoralis
  • Aepyceros melampus
  • Chlorocebus tantalus
  • Pedetes surdaster
  • Pipistrellus hesperidus
  • Oryx beisa ssp. beisa
  • Triaenops afer
  • Lycaon pictus
  • Cercopithecus mitis
  • Chlorocebus pygerythrus
  • Cephalophus weynsi
  • Phacochoerus africanus
  • Panthera pardus
  • Panthera pardus
  • Colobus guereza
  • Galago senegalensis ssp. sotikae
  • Cercopithecus mitis ssp. kolbi
  • Scotophilus andrewreborii
  • Galago gallarum
  • Tadarida ventralis
  • Chlorocebus pygerythrus ssp. hilgerti
  • Rhinolophus hildebrandtii
  • Pelomys fallax
  • Steatomys parvus
  • Cephalophus silvicultor
  • Atelerix albiventris
  • Eidolon helvum
  • Myomyscus brockmani
  • Equus grevyi
  • Helogale parvula
  • Leptailurus serval
  • Colobus guereza
  • Phataginus tricuspis
  • Smutsia temminckii
  • Taphozous nudiventris
  • Colobus guereza ssp. kikuyuensis
  • Galago senegalensis
  • Galago senegalensis
  • Galago senegalensis ssp. braccatus
  • Galago senegalensis ssp. senegalensis
  • Cercopithecus mitis
  • Cercopithecus mitis
  • Galago senegalensis
  • Pipistrellus aero
  • Chaerephon russatus
  • Panthera pardus
  • Cercopithecus mitis ssp. stuhlmanni
  • Rhinopoma macinnesi
  • Perodicticus ibeanus ssp. ibeanus
  • Otolemur garnettii
  • Otolemur garnettii
  • Otolemur garnettii ssp. panganiensis
  • Otolemur garnettii ssp. kikuyuensis
  • Scotoecus albofuscus
  • Colobus guereza
  • Cercopithecus ascanius
  • Perodicticus ibeanus ssp. stockleyi
  • Cercopithecus mitis ssp. albotorquatus
  • Cercopithecus ascanius ssp. schmidti
  • Colobus guereza ssp. matschiei
  • Perodicticus ibeanus
  • Equus quagga
  • Chaerephon pumilus
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Perodicticus ibeanus
  • Cercopithecus neglectus
  • Otolemur crassicaudatus
  • Colobus guereza ssp. percivali
  • Neoromicia helios
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Cephalophus nigrifrons
  • Nanger granti
  • Nanger granti
  • Dendromus melanotis
  • Eudorcas thomsonii
  • Gerbillus cosensis
  • Gerbillus pusillus
  • Gerbillus harwoodi
  • Giraffa camelopardalis
  • Giraffa camelopardalis
  • Giraffa camelopardalis
  • Colomys goslingi
  • Connochaetes taurinus
  • Syncerus caffer
  • Crocidura allex
  • Crocidura elgonius
  • Crocidura fumosa
  • Crocuta crocuta
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Otomys tropicalis
  • Otomops harrisoni
  • Grammomys dolichurus
  • Grammomys gigas
  • Caracal caracal
  • Chaerephon ansorgei
  • Chaerephon chapini
  • Chaerephon major
  • Diceros bicornis
  • Hydrictis maculicollis
  • Heliosciurus rufobrachium
  • Epomophorus wahlbergi
  • Lophuromys sikapusi
  • Chrysochloris stuhlmanni
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Scotophilus leucogaster
  • Papio cynocephalus
  • Triaenops persicus
  • Acinonyx jubatus
  • Aethomys hindei
  • Diceros bicornis
  • Heterohyrax brucei
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Thryonomys swinderianus
  • Crocidura turba
  • Tragelaphus imberbis
  • Thallomys loringi
  • Kerivoula lanosa
  • Madoqua kirkii
  • Hipposideros megalotis
  • Graphiurus microtis
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Rousettus aegyptiacus
  • Crocidura monax
  • Hylomyscus kerbispeterhansi
  • Hylomyscus endorobae
  • Rhabdomys dilectus
  • Orycteropus afer
  • Crocidura viaria
  • Nandinia binotata
  • Ictonyx striatus
  • Poecilogale albinucha
  • Civettictis civetta
  • Taphozous hildegardeae
  • Nesotragus moschatus
  • Perodicticus potto
  • Bdeogale crassicauda
  • Crocidura hildegardeae
  • Rousettus lanosus
  • Damaliscus lunatus
  • Crocidura jacksoni
  • Ceratotherium simum
  • Hipposideros vittatus
  • Crocidura voi
  • Cephalophus harveyi
  • Acinonyx jubatus
  • Myotis bocagii
  • Dendromus insignis
  • Nanger granti
  • Epomophorus minimus
  • Neoromicia rendalli
  • Neoromicia somalica
  • Neoromicia zuluensis
  • Tadarida fulminans
  • Tadarida lobata
  • Scotoecus hirundo
  • Tragelaphus scriptus
  • Tragelaphus strepsiceros
  • Hipposideros camerunensis
  • Crocidura nigrofusca
  • Lepus victoriae
  • Elephantulus brachyrhynchus
  • Mylomys dybowskii
  • Pipistrellus hesperidus
  • Grammomys brevirostris
  • Gerbilliscus nigricaudus
  • Gerbilliscus robustus
  • Hystrix africaeaustralis
  • Dasymys incomtus
  • Hipposideros cyclops
  • Surdisorex polulus
  • Acomys kempi
  • Canis adustus
  • Dendromus mystacalis
  • Redunca redunca
  • Taterillus emini
  • Lemniscomys zebra
  • Xerus erythropus
  • Xerus rutilus
  • Lissonycteris angolensis
  • Miniopterus natalensis
  • Mesoplodon hotaula
  • Lepus capensis
  • Lophuromys flavopunctatus
  • Hipposideros caffer
  • Mops thersites
  • Thallomys paedulcus
  • Nycteris aurita
  • Sylvicapra grimmia
  • Scotophilus viridis
  • Rhinolophus landeri
  • Surdisorex norae
  • Taphozous perforatus
  • Suncus infinitesimus
  • Suncus megalura
  • Genetta genetta
  • Procavia capensis
  • Phacochoerus aethiopicus
  • Aethomys kaiseri
  • Epomophorus minor
  • Kobus ellipsiprymnus
  • Mus musculoides
  • Gerbilliscus boehmi
  • Rattus rattus
  • Crocidura ultima
  • Arvicanthis niloticus
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Kerivoula argentata
  • Neoromicia nana
  • Hystrix cristata
  • Rhinolophus eloquens
  • Tadarida aegyptiaca
  • Anomalurus derbianus
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Genetta servalina
  • Neoromicia tenuipinnis
  • Acinonyx jubatus
  • Acinonyx jubatus
  • Zelotomys hildegardeae
  • Litocranius walleri
  • Aethomys chrysophilus
  • Aonyx capensis
  • Atherurus africanus
  • Bdeogale jacksoni
  • Canis mesomelas
  • Cardioderma cor
  • Erythrocebus patas
  • Coleura afra
  • Herpestes sanguineus
  • Graphiurus murinus
  • Madoqua guentheri
  • Heterocephalus glaber
  • Hippopotamus amphibius
  • Hipposideros ruber
  • Hippotragus equinus
  • Hyaena hyaena
  • Lavia frons
  • Lophiomys imhausi
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Pipistrellus rueppellii
  • Madoqua kirkii
  • Potamogale velox
  • Proteles cristata
  • Protoxerus stangeri
  • Mastomys pernanus
  • Mastomys erythroleucus
  • Mimetillus moloneyi
  • Mus minutoides
  • Mus triton
  • Crocidura yankariensis
  • Myotis tricolor
  • Myotis welwitschii
  • Nycteris hispida
  • Nycteris nana
  • Nycteris thebaica
  • Oreotragus oreotragus
  • Pipistrellus nanulus
  • Epomophorus labiatus
  • Grammomys ibeanus
  • Heliophobius argenteocinereus
  • Scotophilus dinganii
  • Cricetomys ansorgei
  • Acomys ignitus
  • Acomys percivali
  • Acomys wilsoni
  • Dendrohyrax arboreus
  • Alcelaphus buselaphus
  • Alcelaphus buselaphus
  • Arvicanthis nairobae
  • Genetta maculata
  • Graphiurus kelleni
  • Crocidura olivieri
  • Eptesicus hottentotus
  • Kobus ellipsiprymnus
  • Loxodonta africana
  • Taphozous mauritianus
  • Chaerephon bemmeleni
  • Philantomba monticola
  • Cephalophus nigrifrons
  • Neoromicia capensis
  • Crocidura macarthuri
  • Crocidura hirta
  • Gerbillus pusillus

Hotspot & Ecoregion Status

The Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot stretches over 44 degrees latitude and extends in elevation from the top of four mountain ranges (including the highest peaks in Africa and Arabia) down to large plateaus. Such conditions, plus its geological history, create a wide variety of ecosystems. There is also tremendous cultural, linguistic, sociopolitical, and religious diversity within the area. [2] Nairobi is not currently not located within the hotspot but is projected to likely grow into it.

Species statistics

Number of species

Number of endemics

Notable species

Plants

~7,600

>2,350

Birds

>1,300

>157

Critically Endangered Taita thrush ( Turdus helleri ) and the Critically Endangered Taita apalis ( Apalis fuscigularis )

Mammals

~500

>100

the elephant ( Loxodonta africana )

Reptiles

~350

>90

Amphibians

>323

>100

Freshwater Fishes

>890

~620

Invertebrates

The Eastern Afromontane hotspot encompasses a great diversity of plants. The Albertine Rift alone is home to about 15 percent of all Africa’s plant species. Birds are abundant and sundry, but several endemics have tiny ranges. [3] For instance, the Critically Endangered Taita thrush [4] ( Turdus helleri ) and the Critically Endangered Taita apalis [5] ( Apalis fuscigularis ) are both restricted to only a few square kilometers of the fragmented forests in the Kenyan Taita Hills, not far from the expanding city Nairobi. Large mammals such as the elephant and leopard are iconic of the hotspot, but most of the threatened species are primate and smaller mammals. Endemic reptiles in the region are mainly chameleons. Because some of the oldest, largest, and isolated freshwater lakes on earth are found in Eastern Afromontane, the richness and level of endemism of fish are incredibly high. Invertebrates are not yet well studied in the hotspot, but the butterfly fauna is well-known and famous for huge rare and conspicuous swallowtails. [6]

The hotspot has long been suffering civil unrest and conflict, of which the large-scale displacement of human populations also caused significant impacts on the ecosystems. Lack of law enforcement, institutional capacity, and investment made conservation difficult as well. Additional threats include expansion and intensification of agriculture, fire clearing, fuelwood and timber extraction, hunting and bush meat, and wildlife trade. Invasive species (at least 35 in Kenya) are another cause, menacing not only native species but also crops. [7]

The CEPF invested 12 million US dollars in the hotspot from 2012 to 2019. Because of the area’s extreme and prevailing poverty, the funds go for demonstrating the link between biodiversity benefits and sound, sustainable development. [8]

East African Montane Forests

The East African Montane Forests ecoregion includes patches of a chain of isolated mountain ranges along the Rift Valley, from South Sudan, through Uganda and Kenya, to northern Tanzania. The altitude spans between about 1,000 and 3,500 m. The climate is relatively temperate and seasonal, with below 10° C temperatures in winter and above 30° C in warmer months. Rainfalls vary between 1,200 and 2,000 mm per annum, with distinct dry and wet periods. The ecoregion is dominated by sub-montane and montane forests, with some areas of bamboo, grassland, and rocky landscapes at higher elevations. The avifauna are quite diverse, exhibiting also patchy distributions. The relative low level of endemism in species (compared to surrounding eastern African ecoregions) is assumed to be due to shorter length of time available for speciation on those volcanic and geologically young mountains. [9]

Even though the habitat is originally already distributed in a mosaic fashion, human activities in recent decades have resulted in further fragmentation. In most areas almost all native vegetation outside of protected areas have been converted to agricultural or other use. Many forests are cleared for tea, coffee, conifer plantations, which began during the British colonial rule. More recently, main threats come from a rapidly increasing human population, especially in Kenya. These pressures (hunting included) verge on or even spilling into the boundaries of protected areas. [10] At present, 35 percent of the ecoregion’s land is protected, with 16.1 percent of connectivity. [11]

East African Montane Moorlands

The East African Montane Moorlands situate at the higher altitudes of the chain of mountains, spanning across multiple countries. It represents a small, scattered, and quickly declining habitat, which supports a remarkable diversity of plants and unique birds. Some of the only examples of African Alpine grasslands are in this ecoregion. General threats include anthropogenic fire, grazing, and expansion of agriculture. [12] Currently, 71 percent of the ecoregion is protected, and 42.46 percent terrestrially connected. [13]

Current Environmental Status & Major Challenges

Existing protected areas are at the center of the conservation debate in Nairobi--as the city continues to expand, once protected areas are becoming contested territory. Yet the conflict that we see in our map is beyond all of these protected areas, as Nairobi is still growing into the Eastern Afromontane hotspots. A zoomed in look at the conflict area in question shows that it is already heavily impacted by human settlement (agriculture and sprawl).

Biodiversity Policy/Planning

NBSAP

Kenya’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was established in 2000 and the fifth National Report to CBD was released in 2015. The major threats to biodiversity in Kenya are identified as high population pressure, escalating poverty and conflicts, poor land use practices, inadequate laws and institutional framework, poor education, and deficient community involvement. [18] Noteworthy is the mention of gender concerns in the Plan; it states that difficulties which women face in land ownership impede management of ecosystems. [19] Climate change is also increasingly contributing to the country’s vulnerability, as fragile forest and grassland ecosystems more frequently experience droughts. Actions are not yet underway to mitigate such conditions. [20]

Protected Areas

Nairobi National Park (117km 2 ) within city administrative area (the only such wildlife park within a city’s administrative boundary); city growth to the south west is bounded by the national park boundary, but as the city continues to grow closer and more densely around this boundary, the buffer zone is disappearing and there is increasing tension between wildlife and urban residents [21] ; when development pushes into the parklands, there are more wildlife attacks on people and livestock, which in turn leads to increasingly negative attitudes towards conservation among local communities and backfires against conservation efforts [22] ; urban communities are beginning to surround the park--only the south western edge remains free of human development (observation from Google earth); the park is not located within a global hotspot; it is part of a semi-arid savanna ecosystem; in the south it connects with the Athi-Kapiti plains, which cover 2,200sq km; these plains are increasingly fragmented as well as the Masai sell their land; a southern bypass highway is planned to run through the north western highway, if it can get approval from the courts and a railway line is planned for the north-eastern perimeter [23] ; human impacts extend beyond the physical footprint of urban expansion as heavy industry along the eastern boundary creates severe air pollution . [24]

Biodiversity/Landscape Initiatives/Projects

- Wildlife Lease Conservation (WCL) Program-aimed at protecting connectivity between Nairobi National Park and the Athi-Kaputie Plains to the south of the park; this program pays the Maasai community in return for their keeping the lands open to wildlife. [25]

- Ngong Forest Sanctuary

- African Wildlife Foundation: Kitengela Conservation Corridor [26]

- Nairobi Greenline--project in collaboration between Nairobi Greenline Trust and Kenya Wildlife Service to plant a wall of indigenous trees to delineate the edge of the Nairobi National Park to prevent further urban encroachment [27]

- Nairobi Biodiversity Parks: focus on seasonal wetlands in the Nairobi area--tracking seasonal wetlands along the northern edge of Nairobi National Park [28]

- Karura Forest Reserve and the associated Friends of Karura Forest Reserve [29]


[2] CEPF. “Eastern Afromontane.” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/eastern-afromontane.

[3] CEPF. “Eastern Afromontane - Species.” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/eastern-afromontane/species.

[4] “Taita Thrush.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed August 1, 2019. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en.

[5] “Taita Apalis.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed August 1, 2019. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en.

[6] CEPF. “Eastern Afromontane - Species.” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/eastern-afromontane/species.

[7] CEPF. “Eastern Afromontane - Threats.” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/eastern-afromontane/threats.

[8] CEPF. “Eastern Afromontane.” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/eastern-afromontane.

[9] WWF. “Eastern Africa: Southern Sudan, Central Kenya, Int | Ecoregions.” World Wildlife Fund. Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0108.

[10] WWF. “Eastern Africa: Southern Sudan, Central Kenya, Int | Ecoregions.” World Wildlife Fund. Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0108.

[11] “East African Montane Forests.” DOPA Explorer. Accessed July 31, 2019. https://dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ecoregion/30108.

[12] Olson, David & Dinerstein, Eric. (1998). The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth's Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions. Conservation Biology. 12. 502-515. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x.

[13] “East African Montane Moorlands.” DOPA Explorer. Accessed July 31, 2019. https://dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ecoregion/31005.

[14] http://citymasterplan.nairobi.go.ke/index.php/downloads/cat_view/4-niuplan-studies/23-draft-masterplan

[15] Mathieu Merino, “Management of garbage in Nairobi: Perspectives of restructuring public action,” in Deyssi Rodriguez-Torres (ed.) Nairobi Today: The Paradox of a Fragmented City

[16] Stephen Timm, “Architect of Kenya’s Silicon Savannah hits out at delays at Konza Techno City,” Ventureburn (May 19, 2017),  http://ventureburn.com/2017/05/progress-made-kenyas-silicon-savannah-says-konza-agency-head/.

[18] Unit, Biosafety. “Kenya - Country Profile.” Accessed August 16, 2019. https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=ke .

[19] “THE KENYA NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN.” p.11. Accessed August 16, 2019. https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ke/ke-nbsap-01-en.pdf .

[20] Unit, Biosafety. “Kenya - Country Profile.” Accessed August 16, 2019. https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=ke .

[21] "Kenya - Is Kenya's Nairobi National Park under threat?" African Business, 31 May 2016. General OneFile, proxy.library.upenn.edu/login?&url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&sw=w&u=upenn_main&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA461778450&it=r&asid=77bd8fdeddc2e7742be053d155f21b46. Accessed 2 Aug. 2017.

[22] Patrick Kathuli, “We must stop urban sprawl,” Daily Nation (June 28, 2012), http://www.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/DN2/We-must-stop-urban-sprawl-/957860-1437460-format-xhtml-eir2pjz/index.html.

[23] Audrey Garric, “Wildlife pushed back as city encroaches on Nairobi national park,” The Guardian (March 8, 2015), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/08/nairobi-national-park-endangered-city-wildlife-lions.

[24] Glen Hyman, “Reimagining Nairobi National Park: Counter-Intuitive Tradeoffs to Strengthen This Urban Protected Area” The Nature of Cities (April 3, 2013), https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2013/04/03/reimagining-nairobi-national-park-counter-intuitive-tradeoffs-to-strengthen-this-urban-protected-area/.

[25] David Matiko, “Wildlife Conservation Leases are Considerable Conservation Options outside Protected Areas: The Kitengela-Nairobi National Park Wildlife Conservation Lease Program,” Journal of Ecosystem & Ecography 4, Issue 2 (2014):

[26] http://www.awf.org/projects/kitengela-land-conservation

[27] http://nairobigreenline.org/index.php/pages/aboutus

[28] Nature Kenya, “Working Parks: Nairobi Biodiversity Parks,” http://naturekenya.org/about/nairobi-biodiversity-parks/ (accessed 08/02/2017).

[29] http://www.friendsofkarura.org/the-karura-forest-researve/

[30] http://nairobi.go.ke/home/services/